جنسیت سوم

جنسیت سوم مفهومی است که در آن افراد چه توسط خودشان و چه توسط جامعه، به عنوانِ «نه مرد و نه زن» معرفی می‌شوند. همچنین این مولفه به مثابهٔ یک مقوله اجتماعی به صورتِ تاریخی-فرهنگی در برخی جوامع وجود دارد. جوامع و فرهنگ‌هایی که سه جنسیت یا بیش از آن را به رسمت می‌شناسند.

هرچند برخی مردم‌شناسان و جامعه‌شناسان جنسیت‌های چهارم^[۱] و پنجم^[۲] را هم هم معرفی کردند اما اصولاً واژهٔ «سوم» در این بافت به معنای «بقیه» است و شاملِ همهٔ جنسیت‌های احتمالیِ سه و سه به بعدِ موردِ بحث می‌شود.

وضعِ خودشناسی یا دیگری‌شناسی توسط جامعه به عنوان مرد، زن یا غیره، معمولاً با هویت جنسیتی و نقش جنسیتی فرد در فرهنگ ویژه‌ای که در آن می‌زیَد هم تعریف می‌شود.

بیشتر فرهنگ‌ها پیروِ یک سامانهٔ دودویی در مقولهٔ جنسیت هستند که افراد در آن دارایِ دو جنسیتِ پسر/مرد و دختر/زن هستند.^[۳] جنسیت‌های سوم یا چهارم، ممکن است در فرهنگ‌هایی که درشان به رسمیت شناخته شده‌اند، بیانگرِ عناصرِ متفاوتی باشند. بومیان هاوایی و تاهیتی‌ها و ماهوها حالتی میانی بین زن و مرد قائل اند که به نام «حدود جنسیتی» شناخته می‌شود.^[۴] برخی از بومیان سنتیِ آمریکا با نامِ دینه در جنوبِ غربی ایالات متحده طیفی از چهار جنس را می‌شناسند: زن مؤنث، زن مذکر، مرد مؤنث و مرد مذکر.^[۵]

اینکه فرهنگی جنسیت سوم را به رسمیت می‌شناسد الزاماً به این معنی نیست که آن‌ها در آن فرهنگ ارزشمند قائل شده‌اند؛ بلکه این به‌رسمیت‌شناسی، اغلب در نتیجهٔ بی‌ارزش‌انگاری زنان در آن فرهنگ است.^[۶]

در حالی که مفاهیمِ جنسیتیِ سوم و چهارم و… در شماری از فرهنگ‌های غیرغربی یافت می‌شوند، هنوز برای جریان اصلی فرهنگ غربی و تفکر مفهومی، جدید هستند.^[۷] این مفهوم به احتمال بالا در خرده‌فرهنگ‌های دگرباشانِ جنسی پذیرفته شده باشد. در حالی که دانشمندان جریان اصلی غربی، اغلب به دنبال درک اصطلاح «جنس سوم» صرفاً در زبان بوده‌اند. سایر پژوهشگران تأکید می‌کنند که عدم درک و تطابقِ دانشمندانِ جریانِ اصلی با زمینهٔ فرهنگی این اصطلاح در اقوام گوناگون، اولا منجر به گسترش تزهای نادرست از افرادی شده‌است که این پژوهشگران ایشان را در دسته سوم جنسیت قرار می‌دهند و دوما بازنمایی نادرستی از فرهنگ‌های مورد بحث ارائه شده‌است.^[۸]^[۹]^[۱۰]

در ادیان و باورها

در آیین هندو، «شیوا» هنوز به عنوان «آردناریشوارا» یعنی به شکل نیمه‌مذکر و نیمه‌مؤنث پرستیده می‌شود.^[۱۱] نماد شیوا که امروزه به نام شیوالینگا شناخته می‌شود، در واقع آمیزشی از «یونی» (واژن) و «لینگام» (کیر) است.^[۱۲]

در آغاز عصر مشترک، فرقه‌های مردانهٔ اختصاص‌داده‌شده به یک الهه در سراسر منطقه وسیع از مدیترانه تا آسیای جنوبی شکوفا شد که عناصر نادودیی در جنسیتِ شخصیت‌های آن دیده می‌شود. فراتر از هندوستان، ادبیات قوم‌نگاری نوین، شمن-کشیشانِ متفاوت جنسیتی را در سراسر آسیای جنوب شرقی، بورنئو و سولاوسی مستند می‌کند. همهٔ آن‌ها دارای ویژگی‌های تغییر جنسیتی، رابطه جنسی مقعدی، اختگی و… هستند. بیشتر آنها در مقطعی از تاریخِ خود در معابد مستقر بودند و بنابراین بخشی از اداره مذهبی-اقتصادیِ دولت-شهرهایِ مربوطهٔ خود بودند.^[۱۳]

برداشت اسلامی از «انسانِ کامل بودن» آن گونه که از نوشته‌های ابن عربی مشهود است، شخصیتی بدون جنسیت است (بی‌اهمیتیِ جنسیت) که هر زن و مردی به‌طور مساوی می‌توانند به این مرحله از رشد معنوی دست یابند.^[۱۴]^[۱۵]

انتقادها

پژوهش‌گران، انتقادهای پُرشماری بر مفهوم «جنسیت سوم» وارد کرده‌اند. این انتقادها عمدتاً به «استفادهٔ پژوهشگرانِ غربی از این مفهوم برای درک جنسیت در فرهنگ‌های دیگر به روشی قوم‌گرایانه» مربوط می‌شود. جنسیت سوم همچنین به عنوان یک «کشوی آشغالِ تقلیل‌گرایانه» مورد انتقاد قرار گرفته‌است که برای همهٔ هویت‌های جنسیِ نادودوییِ غربی استفاده می‌شود و تفاوت‌های ظریف هویت‌ها، تاریخ‌ها و شیوه‌های گوناگون در فرهنگ‌های دیگر را نادیده می گ‌گیرد تا آن‌ها را در یک درکِ غربی جای دهد. همان‌طور که تاول (Towle) و مُرگان (Morgan) می‌نویسند، «اصطلاح جنسیت سوم، دودویی جنسیتی را خدشه‌دار نمی‌کند؛ بلکه صرفاً یک مقوله دیگر (البته یک مقوله تفکیک شده) به دو دستهٔ موجود می‌افزاید.»^[۱۶] این مفهوم، درک اینکه فرهنگ‌های غیرغربی چگونه به جنس و جنسیت در جوامع خود، چه در عصر حاضر و چه از لحاظ تاریخی ارزش قائل هستند را برای پژوهشگران غربی دشوار می‌سازد.^[۱۷]

منابع

↑ Trumbach, Randolph (1994). London's Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture. In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT). شابک ‎۹۷۸−۰−۹۴۲۲۹۹−۸۲−۳
↑ Graham, Sharyn (2001), Sulawesi's fifth gender بایگانی‌شده در ۷ مارس ۲۰۲۳ توسط Wayback Machine, Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001.
↑ Kevin L. Nadal, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender (2017, شابک ‎۱۴۸۳۳۸۴۲۷۶), page 401: "Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization."
↑ Zanghellini, Aleardo (2013). "Sodomy Laws and Gender Variance in Tahiti and Hawai'i". Laws. 2 (2): 51–68. doi:10.3390/laws2020051.
↑ Estrada, Gabriel S (2011). "Two Spirits, Nádleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze" (PDF). American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 35 (4): 167–190. doi:10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
↑ Holmes, Morgan (July 2004). "Locating Third Sexes" (PDF). Transformations Journal (8). ISSN 1444-3775. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2014. recognition of third sexes and third genders is not equal to valuing the presence of those who were neither male nor female, and often hinges on the explicit devaluation of women, as with the Sambia of New Guinea, or on the valuation of female virginity at the expense of valuing female humanity, as in Polynesia.
↑ McGee, R. Jon and Richard L. Warms 2011 Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. New York, McGraw Hill.
↑ "Asia and the Pacific – ANU". Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
↑ Pember, Mary Annette (13 October 2016). "'Two Spirit' Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes". Rewire. Retrieved 17 October 2016. Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-Native explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing Native peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.
↑ Kehoe, Alice B. (2002). "Appropriate Terms". SAA Bulletin. Society for American Archaeology 16(2), UC-Santa Barbara. ISSN 0741-5672. Archived from the original on 5 November 2004. Retrieved 1 May 2019. At the conferences that produced the book, Two-Spirited People, I heard several First Nations people describe themselves as very much unitary, neither "male" nor "female," much less a pair in one body. Nor did they report an assumption of duality within one body as a common concept within reservation communities; rather, people confided dismay at the Western proclivity for dichotomies. Outside Indo-European-speaking societies, "gender" would not be relevant to the social personae glosses "men" and "women," and "third gender" likely would be meaningless. The unsavory word "berdache" certainly ought to be ditched (Jacobs et al. 1997:3-5), but the urban American neologism "two-spirit" can be misleading.
↑ "Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision)". Archived from the original on 25 February 2009.
↑ Paths to The Divine: Ancient and Indian By George McLean, Vensus A. George, Quote: Siva: The Hermaphrodite The Lord Shiva is the underlying neutral and changeless reality, the undifferentiated absolute Consciousness, who is the foundation of every change and becoming. The hermaphrodite reality is one that is independent of all distinctions of male and female, the phenomenal and the non-phenomenal, and yet forms the basis of all such distinctions. The Puranas speak of Lord Shiva as the Hermaphrodite reality, though distinctionless within Himself, letting the distinctions of the manifold world spring up from Him. The Puranic thinkers interpreted and represented this hermaphrodite aspect of the Lord Siva in various ways. One such symbol expression is the figure of His Sakti. Another such symbol is the Phallus *(the male reproductive part) and the Yoni (the female reproductive part). A third, a more anthropomorphic metaphor, is that of the union between Siva and His many consorts, such as Parvati, Uma, and others. All these symbolisms express the truth that the variety of this universe stems from the lord Siva through his Sakti. To explain this point very picturesquely, the Puranas apply the mythological story of creation by way of the sexual union between Prajaapati and his daughter to Siva who, by His eternal union with His Sakti creates the world. The Puraanas also use another more sacrificial symbollism to expound the hermaphrodite characteristic of Shiva, according to which the male principle is represented as Fire, the devourer of the offering, and the female principle is the Soma, the devoured offering. In this symbolism, the hermaphrodite is the embodiment of the cosmic sacrifice, through which the universe emerges from the Lord Siva.
↑ Priests of the Goddess: Gender Transgression in Ancient Religion by Will Roscoe
↑ The Shari'a: History, Ethics and Law. (2018). Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 95
↑ Shaikh, Sa’diyya. "Ibn ʿArabī and Mystical Disruptions of Gender: Theoretical Explorations in Islamic Feminism." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 47.2 (2022): 475-497.
↑ Towle, Evan B; Morgan, Lynn Marie (2002). "Romancing the Transgender Native: Rethinking the Use of the "Third Gender" Concept". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 8 (4): 469–497. doi:10.1215/10642684-8-4-469. ISSN 1527-9375.
↑ Moral, Enrique (2016). "Qu(e)erying Sex and Gender in Archaeology: a Critique of the "Third" and Other Sexual Categories". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 23 (3): 788–809. doi:10.1007/s10816-016-9294-y. ISSN 1072-5369. JSTOR 43967041.

[1] Trumbach, Randolph (1994). London's Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture. In Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, edited by Gilbert Herdt, 111-36. New York: Zone (MIT). شابک ‎۹۷۸−۰−۹۴۲۲۹۹−۸۲−۳

[Graham-2] Graham, Sharyn (2001), Sulawesi's fifth gender بایگانی‌شده در ۷ مارس ۲۰۲۳ توسط Wayback Machine, Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001.

[Nadal-re-binary-3] Kevin L. Nadal, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender (2017, شابک ‎۱۴۸۳۳۸۴۲۷۶), page 401: "Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization."

[Zanghellini2013-4] Zanghellini, Aleardo (2013). "Sodomy Laws and Gender Variance in Tahiti and Hawai'i". Laws. 2 (2): 51–68. doi:10.3390/laws2020051.

[Estrada-5] Estrada, Gabriel S (2011). "Two Spirits, Nádleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze" (PDF). American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 35 (4): 167–190. doi:10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 11 May 2023.

[Holmes2004-6] Holmes, Morgan (July 2004). "Locating Third Sexes" (PDF). Transformations Journal (8). ISSN 1444-3775. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2014. recognition of third sexes and third genders is not equal to valuing the presence of those who were neither male nor female, and often hinges on the explicit devaluation of women, as with the Sambia of New Guinea, or on the valuation of female virginity at the expense of valuing female humanity, as in Polynesia.

[7] McGee, R. Jon and Richard L. Warms 2011 Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. New York, McGraw Hill.

[8] "Asia and the Pacific – ANU". Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2014.

[Pember-9] Pember, Mary Annette (13 October 2016). "'Two Spirit' Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes". Rewire. Retrieved 17 October 2016. Unfortunately, depending on an oral tradition to impart our ways to future generations opened the floodgates for early non-Native explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists to write books describing Native peoples and therefore bolstering their own role as experts. These writings were and still are entrenched in the perspective of the authors who were and are mostly white men.

[Kehoe-10] Kehoe, Alice B. (2002). "Appropriate Terms". SAA Bulletin. Society for American Archaeology 16(2), UC-Santa Barbara. ISSN 0741-5672. Archived from the original on 5 November 2004. Retrieved 1 May 2019. At the conferences that produced the book, Two-Spirited People, I heard several First Nations people describe themselves as very much unitary, neither "male" nor "female," much less a pair in one body. Nor did they report an assumption of duality within one body as a common concept within reservation communities; rather, people confided dismay at the Western proclivity for dichotomies. Outside Indo-European-speaking societies, "gender" would not be relevant to the social personae glosses "men" and "women," and "third gender" likely would be meaningless. The unsavory word "berdache" certainly ought to be ditched (Jacobs et al. 1997:3-5), but the urban American neologism "two-spirit" can be misleading.

[11] "Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision)". Archived from the original on 25 February 2009.

[12] Paths to The Divine: Ancient and Indian By George McLean, Vensus A. George, Quote: Siva: The Hermaphrodite The Lord Shiva is the underlying neutral and changeless reality, the undifferentiated absolute Consciousness, who is the foundation of every change and becoming. The hermaphrodite reality is one that is independent of all distinctions of male and female, the phenomenal and the non-phenomenal, and yet forms the basis of all such distinctions. The Puranas speak of Lord Shiva as the Hermaphrodite reality, though distinctionless within Himself, letting the distinctions of the manifold world spring up from Him. The Puranic thinkers interpreted and represented this hermaphrodite aspect of the Lord Siva in various ways. One such symbol expression is the figure of His Sakti. Another such symbol is the Phallus *(the male reproductive part) and the Yoni (the female reproductive part). A third, a more anthropomorphic metaphor, is that of the union between Siva and His many consorts, such as Parvati, Uma, and others. All these symbolisms express the truth that the variety of this universe stems from the lord Siva through his Sakti. To explain this point very picturesquely, the Puranas apply the mythological story of creation by way of the sexual union between Prajaapati and his daughter to Siva who, by His eternal union with His Sakti creates the world. The Puraanas also use another more sacrificial symbollism to expound the hermaphrodite characteristic of Shiva, according to which the male principle is represented as Fire, the devourer of the offering, and the female principle is the Soma, the devoured offering. In this symbolism, the hermaphrodite is the embodiment of the cosmic sacrifice, through which the universe emerges from the Lord Siva.

[13] Priests of the Goddess: Gender Transgression in Ancient Religion by Will Roscoe

[14] The Shari'a: History, Ethics and Law. (2018). Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 95

[15] Shaikh, Sa’diyya. "Ibn ʿArabī and Mystical Disruptions of Gender: Theoretical Explorations in Islamic Feminism." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 47.2 (2022): 475-497.

[16] Towle, Evan B; Morgan, Lynn Marie (2002). "Romancing the Transgender Native: Rethinking the Use of the "Third Gender" Concept". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 8 (4): 469–497. doi:10.1215/10642684-8-4-469. ISSN 1527-9375.

[17] Moral, Enrique (2016). "Qu(e)erying Sex and Gender in Archaeology: a Critique of the "Third" and Other Sexual Categories". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 23 (3): 788–809. doi:10.1007/s10816-016-9294-y. ISSN 1072-5369. JSTOR 43967041.

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